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Besides DMDS, mercaptoacetone, 3-methylsulfanylpropan-1-ol, benzothiazole, 2-acetylthiazole, 3,5-dimethyl-1,2,4-trithiolane, 5-(1-propynyl)-thiophen-2-carbaldehyde and sulfur dioxide (SO 2) were identified from various fungal headspaces 20. Compared to bacteria, much less is known about sulfur-containing volatiles produced by fungi 20. Labeling experiment demonstrated that the S-containing volatile is taken up by the plants 18, 19. Under sulfur deficiency, DMDS can sustain plant growth and increase root branching 18. Dimethyl disulfide (DMDS) is produced by the bacteria Serratia odorifera and Bacillus spp. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from microorganisms present another possible route to provide sulfur to plants. The expression of sulfate transporters in plants can also be influenced by mycorrhizal fungi, resulting in improved sulfur status in host plants under sulfur deficient condition 17. Fungal symbionts are also crucial in supporting plants with sulfur, as mycorrhizal fungi promote sulfur uptake in maize, clover and tomato 15, 16.
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Furthermore, fungi were shown to mobilize sulfate-esters and activate arylsulfatases under sulfur-limiting conditions 11, 12, 13, 14. It is now known that microorganisms possess sulfatases to mineralize organic sulfur, thereby releasing sulfate into the rhizosphere 9, 10. thioparus, and showed that they produce sulfate from S 0 6, 7, 8. It was few decades later that scientists isolated the S-oxidizing bacteria Thiobacillus denitrificans and T. As early as in 1877, scientists already knew that elemental sulfur (S 0) can be oxidized to sulfate, and microbes were thought to be an essential part of it 6. In natural environments, microorganisms play an important role in providing sulfate (SO 4 2−), the primary sulfur source accessible, to roots for the biosynthesis of sulfur-containing compounds in plants. Although being classified as secondary metabolites, GSLs can hold up to 30% of total sulfur content in the plant body and serves as sulfur reservoir 4, 5.
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In Brassicales, assimilation of sulfur contributes to the biosynthesis of glucosinolates (GSL), which are essential defense molecules against herbivores and pathogens 2, 3. Notable examples are the iron-sulfur (Fe-S) clusters which are required for electron transport in photosynthesis, reduction and assimilation of sulfur and nitrogen 1. It is first incorporated into cysteine, then further into methionine, glutathione (GSH), vitamins and cofactors, such as thiamine and biotin, to carry out important biochemical processes. Sulfur is an indispensable macronutrient required for proper plant growth, development and physiology. hyalina influences the plant sulfur metabolism by interfering with the GSH metabolism, and alleviates sulfur imbalances under sulfur stress. Since TMTM is not directly incorporated into cysteine, we propose that the volatile from M. However, excess TMTM led to accumulation of GSH and GSL and reduced plant growth. Under sulfur deficiency, TMTM down-regulated sulfur deficiency-responsive genes, prevented glucosinolate (GSL) and glutathione (GSH) diminishment, and sustained plant growth. Incorporation of the sulfur from the fungal volatile into plant metabolism was shown by 34S labeling experiments. hyalina headspace and NMR analysis of the extracted essential oil identified the sulfur-containing volatile tris(methylthio)methane (TMTM) as the major compound. Mortierella hyalina is a beneficial root-colonizing fungus with a garlic-like smell, and promotes growth of Arabidopsis seedlings. Microbial volatiles are important factors in symbiotic interactions with plants.